A Greek Word Study on Aristotle's Categories Chs. 3 and 4
Stephen Alexander Beach
Ch. 3 in Greek
Ὅταν ἕτερον καθ ̓ ἑτέρου κατηγορῆται ὡς καθ ̓ ὑποκειμένου, ὅσα κατὰ τοῦ κατηγορουμένου λέγεται, πάντα καὶ κατὰ τοῦ ὑποκειμένου ῥηθήσεται· οἷον ἄνθρωπος κατὰ τοῦ τινὸς ἀνθρώπου κατηγορεῖται, τὸ δὲ ζῷον κατὰ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου· οὐκοῦν καὶ κατὰ τοῦ τινὸς ἀνθρώπου τὸ ζῷον κατηγορηθήσεται· ὁ γὰρ τὶς ἄνθρωπος καὶ ἄνθρωπος ἐστι καὶ ζῷον. τῶν ἑτερογενῶν καὶ μὴ ὑπ ̓ ἄλληλα τεταγμένων ἕτεραι τῷ εἴδει καὶ αἱ διαφοραί, οἷον ζῴου καὶ ἐπιστήμης· ζώου μὲν γὰρ διαφοραί τό τε πεζὸν καὶ τὸ πτηνὸν καὶ τὸ ἔνυδρον καὶ τὸ δίπουν, ἐπιστήμης δὲ οὐδεμία τούτων· οὐ γὰρ διαφέρει ἐπιστήμη ἐπιστήμης τῷ δίπους εἶναι. τῶν δέ γε ὑπ ̓ ἄλληλα γενῶν οὐδὲν κωλύει τὰς αὐτὰς διαφορὰς εἶναι· τὰ γὰρ ἐπάνω τῶν ὑπ ̓ αὐτὰ γενῶν κατηγορεῖται, ὥστε ὅσαι τοῦ κατηγορουμένου διαφοραί εἰσι τοσαῦται καὶ τοῦ ὑποκειμένου ἔσονται.
Insights
In Ch 3, Aristotle doesn't use λεγω to describe predication (saying), but rather now (κατηγορεῖν), which more properly means "to predicate." This reflecting our idea of Aristotle beginning with language as a starting place, and now moving deeper.
Ch 2 and 4 about the simple and composite are introducing the first two acts of the mind.
We are also introduced to his using "είδος" for species, and genera for genus.
Relevant Word Studies - γένος
The word γένος (genitive plural: γενῶν) has a rich etymology tied to its literal meaning and usage in ancient Greek. Here’s a breakdown of its origin:
Root: The word γένος comes from the Proto-Indo-European root gen-, meaning “to beget,” “to give birth,” or “to produce.”
Related Words: In Greek, this root also appears in γίγνομαι (gígnomai), meaning “to become” or “to come into being.” Other related words in Greek include γεννάω (gennáō), meaning “to beget” or “to generate.” In Latin, a related term is genus, which also means “kind,” “birth,” or “family,” and gives rise to words like “generation” and “genetic” in English.
Literal Meaning: γένος literally means “kind,” “race,” “family,” or “type” and refers to a group of things that share a common origin or nature. It originally conveyed a sense of birth or generation, and by extension, a grouping of individuals or things that are linked by common characteristics or origin.
In Context of Aristotle: In Aristotle’s philosophy, γένος evolved to take on a more technical meaning as “genus” in his classification system, which is still foundational in logic and biology today. γένος refers to a general category or class of things that share essential characteristics. Within that genus, more specific species (εἶδος, eîdos) can be identified based on additional distinguishing features. The term captures both the commonality (the shared features of the group) and the lineage or origination from a common source, much like in family or race (where the word originally referred to familial descent).
Literal Origins and Broader Use: In broader Greek usage, γένος could refer to one’s family or race (as in “a noble γένος”), to types of living creatures, or to kinds of things in a more general sense. Its original sense of birth or generation ties into its role in Aristotle’s logical structure, where a genus gives “birth” to its subordinate species, just as a parent might give birth to offspring.
Summary: The literal origin of γένος is deeply tied to ideas of birth, generation, and shared origin. In Aristotle’s use, it becomes a foundational term for discussing the hierarchical classification of things based on shared characteristics, linking back to its roots in ideas of “generation” and “kind.”
Relevant Word Studies - πέρας (limit)
The Ancient Greek word for “limit” is πέρας (peras).
Etymology and Meaning: πέρας (peras): This word means “limit,” “boundary,” or “end.” It is often used to refer to a physical or conceptual boundary that defines the extent of something. In philosophical contexts, particularly in the works of Plato and Aristotle, πέρας is used to describe the limits or boundaries that define a form, object, or concept. For example, Aristotle contrasts πέρας with the concept of the “infinite” (ἄπειρον, apeiron), where πέρας represents finitude and the completion of a thing.
Examples in Context: In Plato’s works, πέρας is often discussed in relation to ἄπειρον (infinity) in metaphysical terms, where πέρας represents the idea of a boundary that provides structure and definition. In Aristotle’s metaphysical and logical discussions, πέρας can refer to the limit of an entity’s definition, form, or even the end of a process or series.
Relevant Word Studies - ὑποκείμενον
Etymology: ὑπό (hypo): “under” or “beneath” κείμενον (keimenon): Present middle/passive participle of the verb κεῖμαι (“to lie,” “to rest”), meaning “lying,” “being placed”
Literal Meaning: “That which lies beneath” or “that which is placed under.”
Philosophical Use in Aristotle: In Aristotle’s works, ὑποκείμενον refers to the “underlying subject” or “substratum” that persists through change. It is often translated as “subject” or “substance” in metaphysical contexts. The hypokeimenon is the thing that exists independently and can have qualities or predicates attributed to it. For example, in Aristotle’s theory of predication, the hypokeimenon is the subject to which various properties (e.g., “white,” “running”) are applied. In his metaphysics, it can also refer to the underlying substance that remains constant while accidental properties change.
Relevant Word Studies - εἶδος (eidos)
Etymology: Derived from the verb ἰδεῖν (idein), which means “to see” or “to perceive”. εἶδος originally referred to something visible or something that has a shape or form.
Literal Meaning: “Form,” “shape,” or “that which is seen.”
Philosophical Use in Aristotle: Eidos is a central term in Aristotle’s metaphysics and epistemology, commonly translated as “form” or “species.” Aristotle uses eidos to refer to the essential nature or form of a thing, as opposed to its matter (ὕλη, hylē). In his distinction between form and matter, eidos represents what makes something the kind of thing it is—its defining features or structure.
In biological and logical classification, eidos refers to a “species,” as opposed to genos (γένος), which refers to a broader “genus.” For example, “human” is an eidos (species) within the genos (genus) of “animal.”
Relevant Word Studies - οὐσία (ousia):
While the word existed in Greek, meaning “being” or “substance,” Aristotle gave it a much more technical and philosophical meaning. He used it to refer to the underlying reality or essence of something, particularly in metaphysical discussions. His usage became fundamental in later philosophical traditions, especially in metaphysics and ontology.
Relevant Word Studies - κατάφασις (kataphasis) and ἀπόφασις (apophasis):
These terms are often translated as “affirmation” and “negation,” respectively. While they were probably not completely new, Aristotle standardized their use in the context of logic and predication, particularly in his work on syllogism and the theory of propositions.
Relevant Word Studies - συμπλοκή (symploke):
Meaning “combination” or “interweaving,” this word likely predates Aristotle, but he applied it specifically in a logical context to describe the combination of subject and predicate in an assertion. The concept of combining terms to form propositions is central to his logic.
Relevant Word Studies - ποιὸν (poion) and ποσόν (poson):
These terms, meaning “quality” and “quantity” respectively, were not entirely new, but Aristotle gave them technical meanings in his discussions of categories. They are part of his system for classifying types of predication.
Relevant Word Studies - διαφορά (diaphora):
The term means “difference,” but Aristotle gives it a technical role in his philosophy, especially in describing how species within a genus differ. He uses it in the context of logical classification and distinction between things.
Parsing Chapter 3 - Sentence 1
Ὅταν ἕτερον καθ’ ἑτέρου κατηγορῆται ὡς καθ’ ὑποκειμένου, ὅσα κατὰ τοῦ κατηγορουμένου λέγεται, πάντα καὶ κατὰ τοῦ ὑποκειμένου ῥηθήσεται·
Translation: “Whenever one thing is predicated of another as of a subject, whatever is said of the predicate will also be said of the subject.”
Commentary: This passage from Aristotle deals with categorical predication. It expresses the principle that when something (the predicate) is said of another thing (the subject), any attributes or things said about the predicate will also apply to the subject. For example, if “human” is predicated of “Socrates,” and “animal” is predicated of “human,” then “animal” is also predicated of “Socrates.” This is fundamental in Aristotle’s logic and his theory of categories, where terms are hierarchically organized, and predicates can be inherited by the subject in this logical structure.
Ὅταν (Part of speech: Conjunction (temporal), Meaning: “Whenever”, Commentary: Introduces a conditional clause with a general time frame.)
ἕτερον (Part of speech: Adjective, accusative singular, neuter, Meaning: “one” or “another” (something other), Commentary: Refers to a subject that is distinct from another.)
καθ’ (Part of speech: Preposition (κατά + accusative), Meaning: “according to” or “in relation to”, Commentary: Denotes relational meaning, often used in logical or categorial contexts.)
4. ἑτέρου
• Part of speech: Adjective, genitive singular, masculine or neuter
• Meaning: “of another” or “of the other”
• Commentary: Indicates possession or relation to something different from the subject.
5. κατηγορῆται
• Part of speech: Verb, present subjunctive, middle/passive, 3rd person singular
• Meaning: “is predicated” or “is asserted”
• Commentary: Refers to the act of making a categorical statement or attribution.
6. ὡς
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “as” or “in the manner of”
• Commentary: Indicates a comparison or manner of how the predication is done.
7. καθ’
• Part of speech: Preposition (κατά + accusative)
• Meaning: “according to” or “in relation to”
• Commentary: As above, used to indicate relation.
8. ὑποκειμένου
• Part of speech: Noun, genitive singular, neuter (from ὑποκείμενον)
• Meaning: “subject” or “underlying thing”
• Commentary: Refers to the subject in a logical proposition, the thing of which something else is predicated.
9. ὅσα
• Part of speech: Relative pronoun, nominative/accusative plural, neuter
• Meaning: “as many things as” or “whatever”
• Commentary: Refers to the number or set of things being predicated.
10. κατὰ
• Part of speech: Preposition (κατά + genitive)
• Meaning: “according to” or “in relation to”
• Commentary: Same use as before, indicating relation.
11. τοῦ
• Part of speech: Definite article, genitive singular, masculine
• Meaning: “the”
• Commentary: Refers to the subject κατηγορουμένου.
12. κατηγορουμένου
• Part of speech: Participle, present middle/passive, genitive singular, masculine (from κατηγορέω)
• Meaning: “of the one being predicated”
• Commentary: Refers to the predicate in the proposition, the thing that is being asserted of the subject.
13. λέγεται
• Part of speech: Verb, present indicative, passive, 3rd person singular
• Meaning: “is said”
• Commentary: Describes what is stated or predicated of the subject.
14. πάντα
• Part of speech: Adjective, nominative/accusative plural, neuter
• Meaning: “all”
• Commentary: Refers to all of the predicates made about the subject.
15. καὶ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “and” or “also”
• Commentary: Connects the statement and adds emphasis on the inclusion of all predicates.
16. κατὰ
• Part of speech: Preposition (κατά + genitive)
• Meaning: “according to” or “in relation to”
• Commentary: As before, used to indicate relation.
17. τοῦ
• Part of speech: Definite article, genitive singular, neuter
• Meaning: “the”
• Commentary: Refers to ὑποκειμένου (the subject).
18. ὑποκειμένου
• Part of speech: Noun, genitive singular, neuter (from ὑποκείμενον)
• Meaning: “of the subject”
• Commentary: Refers again to the underlying subject in the proposition.
19. ῥηθήσεται
• Part of speech: Verb, future indicative passive, 3rd person singular
• Meaning: “will be said”
• Commentary: Refers to the future tense statement that whatever is predicated of the predicate will also be said of the subject.
Parsing Chapter 3 - Sentence 2
οἷον ἄνθρωπος κατὰ τοῦ τινὸς ἀνθρώπου κατηγορεῖται, τὸ δὲ ζῷον κατὰ τοῦ ἀνθρώπου
Translation: “For example, ‘human’ is predicated of a certain individual human, and ‘animal’ is predicated of the human.”
Commentary: In this sentence, Aristotle is illustrating the hierarchical nature of predication. The term ἄνθρωπος (human) is predicated of a specific human being, meaning the individual is classified under the category “human.” In turn, ζῷον (animal) is predicated of the human, meaning that humans are also classified as animals. This shows how broader categories (such as ζῷον) are predicated of narrower ones (such as ἄνθρωπος), and this predication applies down to specific individuals. This reflects Aristotle’s idea of categories, where general terms can be successively predicated of more specific terms or individuals.
1. οἷον
• Part of speech: Conjunction/adverb
• Meaning: “For example” or “such as”
• Commentary: Introduces an example or analogy, signaling that a specific case is being used to illustrate a general point.
2. ἄνθρωπος
• Part of speech: Noun, nominative singular, masculine
• Meaning: “human” or “man”
• Commentary: Refers to a general category of “human” or “man” in an abstract sense, likely functioning as the predicate in this instance.
3. κατὰ
• Part of speech: Preposition (with genitive)
• Meaning: “in relation to” or “concerning”
• Commentary: Indicates the relationship or predication between two things.
4. τοῦ
• Part of speech: Definite article, genitive singular, masculine
• Meaning: “the”
• Commentary: Refers to the specific individual mentioned next, indicating possession.
5. τινὸς
• Part of speech: Indefinite pronoun, genitive singular, masculine
• Meaning: “a certain” or “some”
• Commentary: Refers to a specific but indefinite individual human being.
6. ἀνθρώπου
• Part of speech: Noun, genitive singular, masculine
• Meaning: “of a human” or “of a man”
• Commentary: Specifies the particular individual being referred to, distinct from the general term ἄνθρωπος.
7. κατηγορεῖται
• Part of speech: Verb, present indicative, middle/passive, 3rd person singular
• Meaning: “is predicated” or “is asserted”
• Commentary: Describes how the general category ἄνθρωπος (human) is being asserted or predicated of a specific human being.
8. τὸ
• Part of speech: Definite article, nominative singular, neuter
• Meaning: “the”
• Commentary: Refers to the next noun ζῷον as the subject.
9. δὲ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “but” or “and”
• Commentary: Contrasts the second part of the sentence with the first, introducing a new example.
10. ζῷον
• Part of speech: Noun, nominative singular, neuter
• Meaning: “animal” or “living being”
• Commentary: Refers to the broader category of animal, which encompasses the category of human.
11. κατὰ
• Part of speech: Preposition (with genitive)
• Meaning: “in relation to” or “concerning”
12. τοῦ
• Part of speech: Definite article, genitive singular, masculine
• Meaning: “the”
• Commentary: Refers to ἀνθρώπου, the specific instance of “human” that the animal is predicated of.
13. ἀνθρώπου
• Part of speech: Noun, genitive singular, masculine
• Meaning: “of a human” or “of a man”
• Commentary: Refers to the specific human who is categorized as both a human and an animal.
Parsing Chapter 3 - Sentence 3
οὐκοῦν καὶ κατὰ τοῦ τινὸς ἀνθρώπου τὸ ζῷον κατηγορηθήσεται
Translation: “Therefore, ‘animal’ will also be predicated of the certain human.”
Commentary: This sentence follows the logic of categorical predication in Aristotle’s philosophy. Since ζῷον (animal) is a broader category that includes ἄνθρωπος (human), it follows that ζῷον can be predicated of any individual human. The inference οὐκοῦν is based on the idea that if a broader category applies to a general term, it also applies to all individuals under that term. In this case, if ζῷον is predicated of ἄνθρωπος, then it must also be predicated of any particular human. This reflects the hierarchical structure of Aristotle’s categories, where predicates are inherited by specific instances.
1. οὐκοῦν
• Part of speech: Conjunction (inferential)
• Meaning: “therefore” or “accordingly”
• Commentary: Introduces a conclusion or inference based on the previous statements.
2. καὶ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “also” or “and”
• Commentary: Adds emphasis, suggesting that the conclusion applies in addition to what was previously mentioned.
3. κατὰ
• Part of speech: Preposition (with genitive)
• Meaning: “in relation to” or “concerning”
• Commentary: Indicates a relational predication, just as in the earlier examples.
4. τοῦ
• Part of speech: Definite article, genitive singular, masculine
• Meaning: “the”
• Commentary: Refers to the specific individual mentioned in the next word.
5. τινὸς
• Part of speech: Indefinite pronoun, genitive singular, masculine
• Meaning: “a certain” or “some”
• Commentary: Refers to a particular, but unspecified, human individual.
6. ἀνθρώπου
• Part of speech: Noun, genitive singular, masculine
• Meaning: “of a human” or “of a man”
• Commentary: Specifies the individual human in question, providing the subject for the predication.
7. τὸ
• Part of speech: Definite article, nominative singular, neuter
• Meaning: “the”
• Commentary: Refers to the next word ζῷον, which is the predicate in the sentence.
8. ζῷον
• Part of speech: Noun, nominative singular, neuter
• Meaning: “animal” or “living being”
• Commentary: Refers to the broader category of “animal,” which is being predicated of the human.
9. κατηγορηθήσεται
• Part of speech: Verb, future indicative passive, 3rd person singular
• Meaning: “will be predicated”
• Commentary: Describes the future act of predication, where ζῷον will be asserted or classified in relation to the specific individual human.
Parsing Chapter 3 Continued
ὁ γὰρ τὶς ἄνθρωπος καὶ ἄνθρωπος ἐστι καὶ ζῷον. τῶν ἑτερογενῶν καὶ μὴ ὑπ’ ἄλληλα τεταγμένων ἕτεραι τῷ εἴδει καὶ αἱ διαφοραί, οἷον ζῴου καὶ ἐπιστήμης· ζώου μὲν γὰρ διαφοραί τό τε πεζὸν καὶ τὸ πτηνὸν καὶ τὸ ἔνυδρον καὶ τὸ δίπουν, ἐπιστήμης δὲ οὐδεμία τούτων· οὐ γὰρ διαφέρει ἐπιστήμη ἐπιστήμης τῷ δίπους εἶναι. τῶν δέ γε ὑπ’ ἄλληλα γενῶν οὐδὲν κωλύει τὰς αὐτὰς διαφορὰς εἶναι· τὰ γὰρ ἐπάνω τῶν ὑπ’ αὐτὰ γενῶν κατηγορεῖται, ὥστε ὅσαι τοῦ κατηγορουμένου διαφοραί εἰσι τοσαῦται καὶ τοῦ ὑποκειμένου ἔσονται.
1. ὁ γὰρ τὶς ἄνθρωπος
• ὁ: Definite article, nominative singular, masculine - “the”
• γὰρ: Conjunction - “for”
• τὶς: Indefinite pronoun, nominative singular, masculine - “a certain”
• ἄνθρωπος: Noun, nominative singular, masculine - “man” or “human”
• Translation: “For a certain man”
2. καὶ ἄνθρωπος ἐστι καὶ ζῷον
• καὶ: Conjunction - “and”
• ἄνθρωπος: Noun, nominative singular, masculine - “man” or “human”
• ἐστι: Verb, present indicative, 3rd person singular - “is”
• ζῷον: Noun, nominative singular, neuter - “animal” or “living being”
• Translation: “is both a human and an animal.”
3. τῶν ἑτερογενῶν καὶ μὴ ὑπ’ ἄλληλα τεταγμένων
• τῶν: Definite article, genitive plural, neuter - “of the”
• ἑτερογενῶν: Adjective, genitive plural, neuter - “heterogeneous” or “different in kind”
• καὶ: Conjunction - “and”
• μὴ: Negation - “not”
• ὑπ’: Preposition with genitive - “under”
• ἄλληλα: Pronoun, accusative plural, neuter - “each other”
• τεταγμένων: Participle, perfect middle-passive, genitive plural, neuter - “arranged” or “ordered”
• Translation: “of things heterogeneous and not arranged under one another”
4. ἕτεραι τῷ εἴδει καὶ αἱ διαφοραί
• ἕτεραι: Adjective, nominative plural, feminine - “different”
• τῷ εἴδει: Noun, dative singular, neuter - “in kind” or “in form”
• καὶ: Conjunction - “and”
• αἱ διαφοραί: Noun, nominative plural, feminine - “the differences”
• Translation: “the differences are different in kind”
5. οἷον ζῴου καὶ ἐπιστήμης
• οἷον: Adverb - “for example”
• ζῴου: Noun, genitive singular, neuter - “of an animal”
• καὶ: Conjunction - “and”
• ἐπιστήμης: Noun, genitive singular, feminine - “of knowledge” or “science”
• Translation: “for example, of an animal and of science”
6. ζώου μὲν γὰρ διαφοραί τό τε πεζὸν καὶ τὸ πτηνὸν καὶ τὸ ἔνυδρον καὶ τὸ δίπουν
• ζώου: Noun, genitive singular, neuter - “of an animal”
• μέν: Particle - contrasts the following with what comes later, “on the one hand”
• γὰρ: Conjunction - “for”
• διαφοραί: Noun, nominative plural, feminine - “differences”
• τό: Definite article, nominative singular, neuter - “the”
• τε: Conjunction - “and”
• πεζὸν: Adjective, nominative singular, neuter - “land-dwelling”
• καὶ: Conjunction - “and”
• πτηνὸν: Adjective, nominative singular, neuter - “winged”
• καὶ: Conjunction - “and”
• ἔνυδρον: Adjective, nominative singular, neuter - “water-dwelling”
• καὶ: Conjunction - “and”
• δίπουν: Adjective, nominative singular, neuter - “two-footed”
• Translation: “For the differences of animals are land-dwelling, winged, water-dwelling, and two-footed.”
7. ἐπιστήμης δὲ οὐδεμία τούτων
• ἐπιστήμης: Noun, genitive singular, feminine - “of knowledge”
• δὲ: Conjunction - “but”
• οὐδεμία: Pronoun, nominative singular, feminine - “none”
• τούτων: Pronoun, genitive plural, neuter - “of these”
• Translation: “but none of these apply to knowledge”
8. οὐ γὰρ διαφέρει ἐπιστήμη ἐπιστήμης τῷ δίπους εἶναι
• οὐ: Negation - “not”
• γὰρ: Conjunction - “for”
• διαφέρει: Verb, present indicative, 3rd person singular - “differs”
• ἐπιστήμη: Noun, nominative singular, feminine - “knowledge”
• ἐπιστήμης: Noun, genitive singular, feminine - “from knowledge”
• τῷ δίπους εἶναι: Dative singular neuter + verb infinitive - “by being two-footed”
• Translation: “For one kind of knowledge does not differ from another by being two-footed.”
9. τῶν δέ γε ὑπ’ ἄλληλα γενῶν οὐδὲν κωλύει τὰς αὐτὰς διαφορὰς εἶναι
• τῶν: Definite article, genitive plural, neuter - “of the”
• δὲ: Conjunction - “but”
• γε: Particle - “at least” or “indeed”
• ὑπ’ ἄλληλα: Prepositional phrase - “under one another”
• γενῶν: Noun, genitive plural, neuter - “genera”
• οὐδὲν: Pronoun, nominative singular, neuter - “nothing”
• κωλύει: Verb, present indicative, 3rd person singular - “prevents”
• τὰς αὐτὰς: Pronoun, accusative plural, feminine - “the same”
• διαφορὰς: Noun, accusative plural, feminine - “differences”
• εἶναι: Verb, present infinitive - “to be”
• Translation: “But nothing prevents the same differences from being under genera arranged in relation to one another.
Parsing Chapter 3 - Last Sentence
τὰ γὰρ ἐπάνω τῶν ὑπ’ αὐτὰ γενῶν κατηγορεῖται, ὥστε ὅσαι τοῦ κατηγορουμένου διαφοραί εἰσι τοσαῦται καὶ τοῦ ὑποκειμένου ἔσονται.
Translation: “For the things above the subordinate genera are predicated, so that as many differences as there are of the predicate, so many also will belong to the subject.”
Commentary: This passage is discussing the hierarchical structure of categories or genera in Aristotelian logic. When a higher genus is predicated of a lower genus, the differences (distinctions) that apply to the higher genus also apply to the lower one. For example, if “animal” is predicated of “human,” and the genus “animal” has certain distinguishing features (such as being capable of movement), these features will also be true of the genus “human.” The structure of the categories is such that whatever distinctions apply to the higher level will also apply to the lower level in the hierarchy.
1. τὰ
• Part of speech: Definite article, nominative plural, neuter
• Meaning: “the things”
• Commentary: Refers to the genera or categories mentioned earlier.
2. γὰρ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “for”
• Commentary: Introduces an explanation or reason.
3. ἐπάνω
• Part of speech: Preposition
• Meaning: “above” or “higher than”
• Commentary: Refers to a hierarchical relationship in the categories or genera.
4. τῶν
• Part of speech: Definite article, genitive plural, neuter
• Meaning: “of the”
• Commentary: Refers to the subordinate genera.
5. ὑπ’ αὐτὰ
• Part of speech: Preposition + pronoun
• Meaning: “under them”
• Commentary: Refers to the genera that are subordinated under the higher categories.
6. γενῶν
• Part of speech: Noun, genitive plural, neuter
• Meaning: “of genera” or “of kinds”
• Commentary: Refers to the general categories or types.
7. κατηγορεῖται
• Part of speech: Verb, present indicative, passive, 3rd person singular
• Meaning: “is predicated”
• Commentary: Describes the act of predicating or classifying something in terms of a higher category.
8. ὥστε
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “so that”
• Commentary: Introduces the result or consequence of the preceding statement.
9. ὅσαι
• Part of speech: Relative pronoun, nominative plural, feminine
• Meaning: “as many as”
• Commentary: Refers to the number of differences in the predicate.
10. τοῦ κατηγορουμένου
• Part of speech: Definite article + participle, genitive singular, neuter
• Meaning: “of the thing being predicated”
• Commentary: Refers to the higher category or genus that is being predicated.
11. διαφοραί
• Part of speech: Noun, nominative plural, feminine
• Meaning: “differences”
• Commentary: Refers to the distinguishing characteristics of the category being predicated.
12. εἰσι
• Part of speech: Verb, present indicative, 3rd person plural
• Meaning: “are”
• Commentary: States that there are differences in the predicate.
13. τοσαῦται
• Part of speech: Pronoun, nominative plural, feminine
• Meaning: “so many”
• Commentary: Indicates that the number of differences is equal to those of the subordinate category.
14. καὶ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “and” or “also”
15. τοῦ ὑποκειμένου
• Part of speech: Definite article + participle, genitive singular, neuter
• Meaning: “of the subject”
• Commentary: Refers to the lower category or genus, which inherits the differences of the predicate.
16. ἔσονται
• Part of speech: Verb, future indicative, 3rd person plural
• Meaning: “will be”
• Commentary: Indicates that the differences will also apply to the subject.
Ch. 4 Greek Text
Ch. 4 Sentence 1
τῶν κατὰ μηδεμίαν συμπλοκὴν λεγομένων ἕκαστον ἤτοι οὐσίαν σημαίνει ἢ ποιὸν ἢ πρός τι ἢ ποὺ ἢ ποτὲ ἢ κεῖσθαι ἢ ἔχειν ἢ ποιεῖν ἢ πάσχειν.
Translation: “Each of the things said in no combination either signifies substance, or quality, or relation, or place, or time, or position, or possession, or action, or passion.”
Commentary: This passage discusses how each of the categories mentioned (substance, quality, relation, place, time, position, possession, action, and passion) signifies a fundamental aspect of being when considered individually. However, when these categories are not combined, they remain neutral and do not form true propositions that can be either true or false. Aristotle is highlighting the importance of these basic categories in ontology but also emphasizing that only through their combination can meaningful (truth-apt) statements be made.
1. τῶν
• Part of speech: Definite article, genitive plural
• Gender: Neuter (agreeing with λεγομένων)
• Meaning: “of the”
• Commentary: Refers to the set of things mentioned.
2. κατὰ
• Part of speech: Preposition + accusative
• Meaning: “according to” or “in accordance with”
• Commentary: Expresses conformity or correspondence to something.
3. μηδεμίαν
• Part of speech: Adjective, accusative singular, feminine
• Meaning: “none” or “no one”
• Commentary: Negates the idea of connection or relation in this context.
4. συμπλοκὴν
• Part of speech: Noun, accusative singular, feminine
• Meaning: “combination” or “connection”
• Commentary: Refers to the combination or complex relationship between things.
5. λεγομένων
• Part of speech: Participle, present passive, genitive plural, neuter
• Meaning: “being said” or “being spoken of”
• Commentary: Refers to things that are mentioned or talked about in isolation.
6. ἕκαστον
• Part of speech: Adjective, nominative singular, neuter
• Meaning: “each” or “every”
• Commentary: Refers to each individual thing mentioned.
7. ἤτοι
• Part of speech: Particle
• Meaning: “either”
• Commentary: Introduces a series of possible categories or meanings.
8. οὐσίαν
• Part of speech: Noun, accusative singular, feminine
• Meaning: “substance” or “essence”
• Commentary: Refers to the primary category of substance in Aristotle’s classification.
9. σημαίνει
• Part of speech: Verb, present indicative active, 3rd person singular
• Meaning: “signifies” or “means”
• Commentary: Indicates what each thing refers to or represents.
10. ἢ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “or”
• Commentary: Used repeatedly to connect different categories.
11. ποιὸν
• Part of speech: Noun, accusative singular, neuter
• Meaning: “quality”
• Commentary: Refers to the category of quality.
12. ἢ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “or”
13. πρός τι
• πρός: Preposition, “in relation to”
• τι: Indefinite pronoun, accusative singular, “something”
• Meaning: “relation to something”
• Commentary: Refers to relation, one of the ten categories in Aristotle’s ontology.
14. ἢ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “or”
15. ποὺ
• Part of speech: Adverb
• Meaning: “where”
• Commentary: Refers to place, another of the categories.
16. ἢ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “or”
17. ποτὲ
• Part of speech: Adverb
• Meaning: “when”
• Commentary: Refers to time.
18. ἢ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “or”
19. κεῖσθαι
• Part of speech: Verb, present infinitive
• Meaning: “to lie” (in a position)
• Commentary: Refers to position.
20. ἢ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “or”
21. ἔχειν
• Part of speech: Verb, present infinitive
• Meaning: “to have”
• Commentary: Refers to possession.
22. ἢ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “or”
23. ποιεῖν
• Part of speech: Verb, present infinitive
• Meaning: “to do” or “to make”
• Commentary: Refers to action.
24. ἢ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “or”
25. πάσχειν
• Part of speech: Verb, present infinitive
• Meaning: “to suffer” or “to undergo”
• Commentary: Refers to passion or the state of being acted upon.
Ch. 4 - Sentence 2
ἔστι δὲ οὐσία μὲν ὡς τύπῳ εἰπεῖν οἷον ἄνθρωπος, ἵππος:
Translation: “But substance is, so to speak, for example, man or horse.”
Commentary: In this sentence, Aristotle is discussing οὐσία (substance or essence), one of the central concepts in his metaphysics. A substance refers to what fundamentally exists, what something is in its most essential form. Aristotle is illustrating that when we speak of substances, we refer to things like “man” (ἄνθρωπος) or “horse” (ἵππος)—individual entities that have their own distinct, essential nature. The phrase ὡς τύπῳ εἰπεῖν (“so to speak” or “by way of example”) suggests that he is giving rough examples of substances, rather than offering an exhaustive definition. This is part of Aristotle’s broader project of categorizing the world into substances and their various properties (or accidents). Here, ἄνθρωπος (man) and ἵππος (horse) are examples of primary substances—individual living beings whose essences make them what they are.
1. ἔστι
• Part of speech: Verb, 3rd person singular, present indicative
• Meaning: “is” or “exists”
• Commentary: This is the standard Greek form of the verb “to be.”
2. δὲ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “but” or “and”
• Commentary: A transition word, often used to contrast or introduce new information.
3. οὐσία
• Part of speech: Noun, nominative singular, feminine
• Meaning: “substance” or “essence”
• Commentary: In Aristotle’s philosophy, οὐσία refers to the essential nature of a thing—what it is at its core. Here, it refers to what truly “is” in the most fundamental sense, as opposed to accidental properties.
4. μὲν
• Part of speech: Particle
• Meaning: “on the one hand”
• Commentary: Often used in contrast with δέ (though its contrasting “on the other hand” isn’t always explicit in the sentence). In this sentence, it is anticipating a comparison or explanation.
5. ὡς
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “as”
• Commentary: Used to introduce a comparison or clarification.
6. τύπῳ
• Part of speech: Noun, dative singular, masculine
• Meaning: “in a way” or “by way of example” (literally “by type” or “by form”)
• Commentary: In this context, Aristotle seems to be speaking metaphorically or giving a rough example, indicating that he is not being strictly literal.
7. εἰπεῖν
• Part of speech: Verb, aorist infinitive
• Meaning: “to say”
• Commentary: Complements the phrase, suggesting the sentence is saying “it is possible to say” or “it can be said.”
8. οἷον
• Part of speech: Particle
• Meaning: “for example”
• Commentary: Introduces an example of a substance or essence.
9. ἄνθρωπος
• Part of speech: Noun, nominative singular, masculine
• Meaning: “man” or “human”
• Commentary: Aristotle is giving “human” as an example of a substance or essence.
10. ἵππος
• Part of speech: Noun, nominative singular, masculine
• Meaning: “horse”
• Commentary: Like “man,” “horse” is another example of a primary substance or essence in Aristotle’s classification.
Ch. 4 Sentence 3
ποσὸν δὲ οἷον δίπηχυ, τρίπηχυ· ποιὸν δὲ οἷον λευκόν, γραμματικόν·:
Translation: “And quantity, for example, two cubits, three cubits; and quality, for example, white, learned.”
Commentary: In this passage, Aristotle is distinguishing between two of his Categories—quantity (ποσόν) and quality (ποιόν)—and providing examples for each: Quantity (ποσόν): δίπηχυ (“two cubits”) and τρίπηχυ (“three cubits”) are examples of measurements, which are aspects of quantity. These describe how much of something there is, usually in terms of size, length, or volume.
Quality (ποιόν): λευκόν (“white”) and γραμματικόν (“learned”) are examples of qualities, which describe what kind of thing something is. λευκόν refers to color (a physical quality), while γραμματικόν refers to an intellectual characteristic, denoting someone learned in grammar or educated in general. Aristotle uses these examples to illustrate how we can categorize different aspects of being: some attributes pertain to how much of something there is (quantity), while others pertain to what kind of thing something is (quality). These are two distinct ways of describing the properties of an entity.
1. ποσὸν
• Part of speech: Adjective, accusative singular, neuter
• Meaning: “quantity” or “how much”
• Commentary: In Aristotle’s categories, ποσόν refers to quantity, a category that describes the measurable aspects of something, such as length, height, or volume.
2. δὲ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “but” or “and”
• Commentary: A connective that introduces a new part of the discussion or contrasts with a previous statement.
3. οἷον
• Part of speech: Particle
• Meaning: “for example” or “such as”
• Commentary: Used to introduce specific examples of the category of ποσόν (quantity).
4. δίπηχυ
• Part of speech: Adjective, accusative singular, neuter
• Meaning: “two cubits long” (a cubit being an ancient measurement of length, roughly the length of a forearm)
• Commentary: This is an example of ποσόν (quantity), specifically referring to a measurement of length (two cubits).
5. τρίπηχυ
• Part of speech: Adjective, accusative singular, neuter
• Meaning: “three cubits long”
• Commentary: Another example of ποσόν, extending the idea of measurable quantity. Together with δίπηχυ, this gives examples of numerical or measurable attributes.
6. ποιὸν
• Part of speech: Adjective, accusative singular, neuter
• Meaning: “quality” or “what kind”
• Commentary: In Aristotle’s categories, ποιόν refers to the qualities of a thing, that is, attributes that describe what kind of thing it is, such as color, knowledge, or moral character.
7. δὲ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “but” or “and”
• Commentary: Here it functions similarly to the previous δὲ, marking a transition from discussing quantity (ποσόν) to quality (ποιόν).
8. οἷον
• Part of speech: Particle
• Meaning: “for example” or “such as”
• Commentary: Used again to introduce specific examples, this time of the category of ποιόν (quality).
9. λευκόν
• Part of speech: Adjective, accusative singular, neuter
• Meaning: “white”
• Commentary: This is an example of ποιόν (quality). Color, such as whiteness, is a qualitative attribute of a thing.
10. γραμματικόν
• Part of speech: Adjective, accusative singular, neuter
• Meaning: “learned” or “grammatical” (referring to being skilled in grammar, or more generally, educated)
• Commentary: Another example of ποιόν (quality), indicating intellectual qualities or learnedness.
Ch. 4 Sentence 4
πρός τι δὲ οἷον διπλάσιον, ἥμισυ, μεῖζον· ποὺ δὲ οἷον ἐν Λυκείῳ, ἐν ἀγορᾷ· ποτὲ δὲ οἷον χθές, πέρυσιν·:
Translation: “And in relation to something, for example, double, half, greater; and where, for example, in the Lyceum, in the marketplace; and when, for example, yesterday, last year.”
Commentary: In this passage, Aristotle continues to outline his Categories:
1. πρός τι (Relation): Aristotle provides examples of relational properties: διπλάσιον (double), ἥμισυ (half), and μεῖζον (greater). These refer to how something stands in comparison to something else, a key aspect of Aristotle’s πρός τι category. These terms require a reference point: something is double, half, or greater in relation to something else.
2. ποὺ (Place): Examples like ἐν Λυκείῳ (in the Lyceum) and ἐν ἀγορᾷ (in the marketplace) illustrate place—the spatial location where something exists or occurs.
3. ποτὲ (Time): Time is another fundamental category for Aristotle. Examples like χθές (yesterday) and πέρυσιν (last year) show how time places things in relation to the past, present, or future.
Each of these examples helps Aristotle illustrate how different properties or aspects of being (quantity, quality, relation, place, and time) can be categorized and distinguished. These categories are foundational to his philosophical framework for understanding the different ways in which things can be described and classified.
1. πρός τι
• πρός: Preposition
• Meaning: “in relation to” or “with regard to”
• Commentary: Often used to indicate something in relation to something else.
• τι: Indefinite pronoun, accusative singular neuter
• Meaning: “something” or “a certain thing”
• Commentary: Indicates a relation to something unspecified or general.
2. δὲ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “but” or “and”
• Commentary: Connects this clause to the previous one, continuing the enumeration of Aristotle’s categories.
3. οἷον
• Part of speech: Particle
• Meaning: “for example” or “such as”
• Commentary: Used to introduce examples, as in the previous sections.
4. διπλάσιον
• Part of speech: Adjective, accusative singular neuter
• Meaning: “double” or “twice as much”
• Commentary: Refers to a relational concept where something is twice the size or amount of another thing. This belongs to the category of πρός τι (relation), which refers to things in comparison or relation to one another.
5. ἥμισυ
• Part of speech: Adjective, accusative singular neuter
• Meaning: “half”
• Commentary: Another example of πρός τι, indicating a relational concept of “half” or “something being half of something else.”
6. μεῖζον
• Part of speech: Adjective, accusative singular neuter
• Meaning: “greater” or “larger”
• Commentary: A term of relation, indicating something is “greater than” or “larger than” something else. This is part of Aristotle’s πρός τι category, meaning “in relation to something else.”
7. ποὺ
• Part of speech: Adverb
• Meaning: “where” or “place”
• Commentary: Introduces the category of place (ποὺ), indicating a location or position.
8. δὲ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “but” or “and”
• Commentary: Continues the list of categories, this time referring to place.
9. οἷον
• Part of speech: Particle
• Meaning: “for example”
• Commentary: Introducing examples of place (ποὺ).
10. ἐν Λυκείῳ
• ἐν: Preposition
• Meaning: “in”
• Commentary: Indicates a position or location.
• Λυκείῳ: Noun, dative singular neuter
• Meaning: “in the Lyceum”
• Commentary: Refers to a specific location, the Lyceum, which was a public space in Athens where Aristotle and his students taught and studied.
11. ἐν ἀγορᾷ
• ἐν: Preposition
• Meaning: “in”
• Commentary: Same as above, indicating a place.
• ἀγορᾷ: Noun, dative singular feminine
• Meaning: “in the marketplace”
• Commentary: Refers to the agora, the central public space in ancient Greek cities, typically used for assemblies and markets.
12. ποτὲ
• Part of speech: Adverb
• Meaning: “when” or “time”
• Commentary: Introduces the category of time (ποτὲ), referring to specific temporal moments.
13. δὲ
• Part of speech: Conjunction
• Meaning: “but” or “and”
• Commentary: Connects the examples of time to the previous examples of place.
14. οἷον
• Part of speech: Particle
• Meaning: “for example”
• Commentary: Introduces examples of time.
15. χθές
• Part of speech: Adverb
• Meaning: “yesterday”
• Commentary: An example of time (ποτὲ), referring to a specific moment in the past.
16. πέρυσιν
• Part of speech: Adverb
• Meaning: “last year”
• Commentary: Another example of time, specifying a point in the past.
Ch. 4 Sentences Cont.
1. κεῖσθαι δὲ οἷον ἀνάκειται, κάθηται·
Translation: “And in the category of being situated (κεῖσθαι), for example, reclining (ἀνάκειται) or sitting (κάθηται).”
• κεῖσθαι: Present infinitive middle/passive of κεῖμαι
• Meaning: “to lie” or “to be situated”
• δὲ: Conjunction
• Meaning: “and” or “but”
• οἷον: Particle
• Meaning: “for example” or “such as”
• ἀνάκειται: 3rd person singular present indicative middle/passive of ἀνάκειμαι
• Meaning: “to recline” or “to be laid”
• κάθηται: 3rd person singular present indicative middle/passive of κάθημαι
• Meaning: “to sit”
Ch. 4 Sentences Cont.
ἔχειν δὲ οἷον ὑποδέδεται, ὥπλισται·
Translation: “And in the category of having (ἔχειν), for example, putting on (ὑποδέδεται) or being armed (ὥπλισται).”
• ἔχειν: Present infinitive active of ἔχω
• Meaning: “to have” or “to possess”
• δὲ: Conjunction
• Meaning: “and” or “but”
• οἷον: Particle
• Meaning: “for example” or “such as”
• ὑποδέδεται: 3rd person singular perfect indicative middle/passive of ὑποδέχομαι
• Meaning: “has put on” (e.g., shoes or sandals)
• ὥπλισται: 3rd person singular perfect indicative middle/passive of ὁπλίζω
• Meaning: “has been armed” or “is equipped”
Ch. 4 Sentences Cont.
ποιεῖν δὲ οἷον τέμνειν, καίειν·
Translation: “And in the category of doing (ποιεῖν), for example, cutting (τέμνειν) or burning (καίειν).”
• ποιεῖν: Present infinitive active of ποιέω
• Meaning: “to do” or “to make”
• δὲ: Conjunction
• Meaning: “and” or “but”
• οἷον: Particle
• Meaning: “for example” or “such as”
• τέμνειν: Present infinitive active of τέμνω
• Meaning: “to cut”
• καίειν: Present infinitive active of καίω
• Meaning: “to burn”
Ch. 4 Sentences Cont.
πάσχειν δὲ οἷον τέμνεσθαι, καίεσθαι.
Translation: “And in the category of suffering (πάσχειν), for example, being cut (τέμνεσθαι) or being burned (καίεσθαι).”
• πάσχειν: Present infinitive active of πάσχω
• Meaning: “to suffer” or “to experience”
• δὲ: Conjunction
• Meaning: “and” or “but”
• οἷον: Particle
• Meaning: “for example” or “such as”
• τέμνεσθαι: Present infinitive middle/passive of τέμνω
• Meaning: “to be cut”
• καίεσθαι: Present infinitive middle/passive of καίω
• Meaning: “to be burned”
Ch. 4 Sentences Cont.
ἕκαστον δὲ τῶν εἰρημένων αὐτὸ μὲν καθ’ αὑτὸ ἐν οὐδεμιᾷ καταφάσει λέγεται, τῇ δὲ πρὸς ἄλληλα τούτων συμπλοκῇ κατάφασις γίγνεται·
Translation: “And each of the things said by itself is said in no affirmation, but in the combination of these with each other, an affirmation comes into being.”
Commentary: This passage continues Aristotle’s exploration of the categories by presenting specific examples of being in a position (κεῖσθαι), having (ἔχειν), doing (ποιεῖν), and suffering (πάσχειν). He provides instances like reclining and sitting, putting on and being armed, cutting and burning, and their passive counterparts, being cut and being burned. The last sentence highlights that these individual concepts, when taken alone, do not form complete affirmations or propositions—they merely refer to isolated concepts. However, when they are combined in a syntactic and logical relationship, they form complete statements that can be either true or false. This emphasizes Aristotle’s theory that propositions arise from the combination of subjects and predicates in meaningful ways, not from isolated concepts.
• ἕκαστον: Adjective, nominative singular neuter of ἕκαστος. Meaning: “each one”
• δὲ: Conjunction
• Meaning: “and” or “but”
• τῶν εἰρημένων: Genitive plural neuter of εἰρημένος (the things that have been said)
• Meaning: “of the things that have been said”
• αὐτὸ: Pronoun, nominative singular neuter
• Meaning: “itself”
• μὲν: Particle
• Meaning: “on the one hand”
• καθ’ αὑτὸ: Prepositional phrase
• Meaning: “by itself”
• ἐν: Preposition meaning “in”
• οὐδεμιᾷ: Dative singular of οὐδείς meaning “in no”
• καταφάσει: Dative singular of κατάφασις meaning “affirmation”
• λέγεται: 3rd person singular present indicative middle/passive of λέγω, meaning “is said”
• Meaning: “is said in no affirmation”
• τῇ δὲ: “but in the”
• πρὸς ἄλληλα: “with each other”
• τούτων: Genitive plural of οὗτος, meaning “of these”
• συμπλοκῇ: Dative singular of συμπλοκή, meaning “combination”
• κατάφασις: Nominative singular of κατάφασις, meaning “affirmation”
• γίγνεται: 3rd person singular present indicative middle/passive of γίγνομαι, meaning “becomes” or “comes into being”
Ch. 4 Sentences Cont.
ἅπασα γὰρ δοκεῖ κατάφασις ἤτοι ἀληθὴς ἢ ψευδὴς εἶναι,
Translation: “For every affirmation seems to be either true or false,”
• ἅπασα: Adjective, nominative singular feminine of ἅπας
• Meaning: “every,” “all”
• γὰρ: Conjunction
• Meaning: “for”
• δοκεῖ: 3rd person singular present indicative active of δοκέω
• Meaning: “seems,” “appears”
• κατάφασις: Nominative singular feminine of κατάφασις
• Meaning: “affirmation,” “assertion”
• ἤτοι: Conjunction
• Meaning: “either”
• ἀληθὴς: Adjective, nominative singular feminine of ἀληθής
• Meaning: “true”
• ἢ: Conjunction
• Meaning: “or”
• ψευδὴς: Adjective, nominative singular feminine of ψευδής
• Meaning: “false”
• εἶναι: Present infinitive of εἰμί
• Meaning: “to be”
Ch. 4 Sentences Cont.
τῶν δὲ κατὰ μηδεμίαν συμπλοκὴν λεγομένων οὐδὲν οὔτε ἀληθὲς οὔτε ψεῦδός ἐστιν,
Translation: “For every affirmation seems to be either true or false, but of things said in no combination, none is either true or false, such as ‘man,’ ‘white,’ ‘runs,’ ‘wins.’”
Commentary: Aristotle is making a distinction between isolated terms and complete propositions. Simple terms like “man,” “white,” or “runs” on their own are neither true nor false. Truth and falsity arise only when terms are combined into a proposition, such as “the man is white” or “he runs.” The individual terms merely describe qualities or actions without asserting anything about their truth. This passage is key to Aristotle’s discussion of predication and how meaningful propositions are constructed. It emphasizes that truth and falsity belong to affirmations (κατάφασις), which involve some combination or relationship between subjects and predicates.
• τῶν: Genitive plural of ὁ
• Meaning: “of the”
• δὲ: Conjunction
• Meaning: “but”
• κατὰ μηδεμίαν: Prepositional phrase with μηδεμίαν in the accusative singular feminine of μηδείς
• Meaning: “according to no,” “in no”
• συμπλοκὴν: Accusative singular of συμπλοκή
• Meaning: “combination,” “connection”
• λεγομένων: Genitive plural present participle passive of λέγω
• Meaning: “being said,” “being spoken of”
• οὐδὲν: Nominative singular neuter of οὐδείς
• Meaning: “nothing”
• οὔτε…οὔτε: Conjunction
• Meaning: “neither…nor”
• ἀληθὲς: Nominative singular neuter of ἀληθής
• Meaning: “true”
• ψεῦδός: Nominative singular neuter of ψευδής
• Meaning: “false”
• ἐστιν: 3rd person singular present indicative active of εἰμί
• Meaning: “is”
Ch. 4 Sentences Cont.
οἷον ἄνθρωπος, λευκόν, τρέχει, νικᾷ.
Translation: “for example, ‘man,’ ‘white,’ ‘runs,’ ‘wins.’”
• οἷον: Particle
• Meaning: “for example”
• ἄνθρωπος: Nominative singular masculine of ἄνθρωπος
• Meaning: “man,” “human”
• λευκόν: Nominative singular neuter of λευκός
• Meaning: “white”
• τρέχει: 3rd person singular present indicative active of τρέχω
• Meaning: “runs”
• νικᾷ: 3rd person singular present indicative active of νικάω
• Meaning: “wins,” “is victorious”
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